Mirar la maternidad a través de las fotografías de la serie New Mothers de Rineke Dijkstra

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En la obra fotográfica de la artista neerlandesa Rineke Dijkstra (Sittard 1959- ) se encuentra de forma recurrente la presentación de personas que están experimentando un importante proceso de transición. En la serie Beach Portraits (1992-2002), por ejemplo, Dijkstra fotografía adolescentes en la playa y construye las imágenes de tal manera que sean los retratados y retratadas los que deciden como se presentan así mismos frente a la cámara, mostrando así sus gestos de incomodidad, ternura, nerviosismo, su persona en proceso de cambio. Otras series como Almerisa (1994 – ) o Soldiers (2000-2003) muestran también distintos abordajes a momentos de transición en la vida de las personas. En la serie Almerisa, Dijkstra se enfoca en realizar un registro de retratos a través de los años de como Almerisa, una niña que llega huyendo con su familia de Bosnia a Holanda, crece y se transforma en una mujer adulta en su nuevo lugar de residencia.

En resumen, características que son constantemente visibles en la obra de Dijkstra, son la presentación de personas atravesando importantes y diversos momentos de transición en su vida. Otro atributo de la obra de Dijkstra es la manera en la que la fotógrafa elige presentar a los y las retratadas, aislándolos de un contexto específico. En otras palabras, Dijkstra fotografía a las personas a menudo ante un fondo neutro, de tal manera que no se identifique un determinado contexto o entorno en la imagen.  

En el año 1994, Rineke Dijkstra realiza una serie de tres fotografías llamada New Mothers. Este grupo de imágenes presenta a tres mujeres fotografiadas momentos después de haber dado a luz. Las mujeres son capturadas con la cámara al poco tiempo de haberse convertido en madres, mientras sostienen a sus recién nacidos en brazos. New Mothers (1994) es otro ejemplo clave de la característica antes mencionada en la obra de Dijkstra. En esta serie el momento de transición parece ser fotografiado en el instante en el que está ocurriendo. 

New Mothers aborda la maternidad, el parto y el posparto de una manera particular. Un enfoque que busca alejarse de la idealización de la imagen de la madre y la maternidad, representada, sobre todo en la tradición de la historia del arte occidental, a través de la imagen de la Virgen María; la imagen de la “buena madre”.

Partiendo de este planteamiento, el presente ensayo aborda la serie New Mothers (1994) de Dijkstra para observar la manera en que la fotógrafa se refiere a la maternidad y al ser madre a través de sus imágenes. Por ejemplo, por medio de cómo la artista construye las fotografías, el momento de la maternidad que escoge exponer, cómo presenta a los sujetos retratados y cómo la composición de las imágenes estimula la contemplación por parte del observador. Todo esto para considerar como Dijkstra abstrae y entiende la maternidad desde su posición de mujer fotógrafa.

Después de analizar la serie de Dijkstra, se realizará una breve comparación de esta con una obra que aborda la maternidad desde otra perspectiva, la instalación fotográfica Ten Months (1979) de la artista estadounidense Susan Hiller (1940-2019).

Las dos series en discusión exponen diferentes maneras de reflexionar la maternidad a través del arte. El objetivo general de esta comparación tiene como finalidad presentar dos ejemplos de cómo la complejidad de la maternidad ha sido planteada por estas artistas y de esta manera impulsar el interés y la discusión de este tema y la forma en la que ha sido representado y mostrado en las últimas décadas.

 En New Mothers, se puede percibir que Dijkstra se acerca al tema manteniendo a la vez una cierta distancia. Ella aborda el tema desde su rol de fotógrafa, explorando el proceso de transición a la maternidad en sus sujetos. Por otro lado, la obra de Hiller analiza la maternidad desde la primera persona, ella como artista – madre. Estas dos aproximaciones, a pesar de ser distintas entre sí, se contraponen con la imagen de la madre que se encuentra constantemente en la cultura visual de los países de tradición católica y en la tradición de la historia del arte occidental.  Una imagen de la madre y de la maternidad que, por ejemplo, se puede observar en la representación de la virgen María (La Virgen de las rosas) realizada por Martin Schongauer en 1473, un retablo realizado en témpera sobre madera que se encuentra en la iglesia de los Dominicos de Colmar. 

Desarollo

Para la serie New Mothers, Rineke Dijkstra fotografió a tres mujeres, Julie, Saskia y Tecla. Las tres imágenes comparten similitudes formales las cuales varias de ellas pueden ser frecuentemente observadas en fotografías de Dijkstra.

En los tres retratos de la serie, Rineke Dijkstra muestra una imagen de cuerpo completo de las mujeres y posiciona a las retratadas de forma central en el encuadre. En cada una de las fotografías se puede observar como la mujer retratada está parada, con su bebé en brazos y mirando fijamente a la cámara. Como es usual en fotografías de Dijkstra, el fondo y el espacio donde se encuentran los sujetos retratados se ha mantenido lo más simplificado posible. Es decir, se ha procurado eliminar cualquier detalle que pueda distraer a los observadores y se ha colocado el enfoque en la persona fotografiada. En las tres imágenes de New Mothers, las mujeres están retratadas en un espacio interior y el fondo de la fotografía es neutral; el entorno donde se han realizado las fotografías podría tratarse de la casa de las mismas retratadas, o a su vez, podría tratarse de un espacio dentro de una institución médica. No se provee más información visual acerca de donde se encuentran.

Las tres mujeres fotografiadas están paradas frente a una pared blanca. Al mirar más detalladamente las imágenes, se puede reconocer elementos cotidianos como parte del marco de una puerta o interruptores eléctricos en el fondo. Todo esto habla de una fotografía que, si bien no es de estudio, se ha construido de tal manera que el retratado contenga toda la atención de la persona que observa. 

El tratamiento de la luz es muy similar en las tres imágenes. En la pared de fondo no se encuentra ninguna sombra y los cuerpos completos de las mujeres están iluminados de manera uniforme, por consiguiente, no hay partes con fuertes contrastes de luz y sombra.

Dijkstra compone las fotografías de tal manera que las mujeres están paradas frente a la cámara, desnudas o casi desnudas. (En el caso de Julie (Rineke Dijkstra: Julie, Den Hague, The Netherlands, February 29, 1994) con ropa interior de postparto). Resulta interesante observar la manera en la que las madres sostienen a sus hijos en brazos, todas cargan a sus bebés desnudos, pegados a sus cuerpos, con los brazos y manos en gestos delicados y de protección. Se podría entender como protección a la cámara, o incluso a las personas extrañas alrededor. 

Al examinar minuciosamente cada fotografía, se aprecia las diferentes posiciones corporales que cada una de las madres ha adoptado frente a la cámara. No solo su lenguaje corporal varía en cada una de ellas, así sea ligeramente, si no sus expresiones faciales también. 

Es crucial tener en cuenta que las mujeres se encuentran en ese momento paradas frente a la cámara para ser fotografiadas poco tiempo después de haber experimentado un proceso extremadamente intenso tanto corporal, como emocionalmente. Dicho con otras palabras, acaban de atravesar un suceso extenuante. 

En este contexto, resulta valioso observar también las expresiones faciales de las retratadas, las cuales parecen transmitir información sobre la experiencia vivida momentos, horas o pocos días atrás. Miradas de orgullo, de calma, de fuerza extrema, así mismo de agotamiento, quizás algo de confusión, o desconfianza son probables lecturas que se les puede dar a los gestos de las madres retratadas. Y es que estas lecturas pueden ser muy variadas por parte de los observadores, ya que parece ser justo la intención de Dijkstra componer imágenes de tal manera que el cuerpo, los rostros de las madres estén expuestas al escrutinio de los observadores.

Como se mencionó anteriormente, Dijkstra elimina todo elemento que pueda distraer al observador y pone toda la atención del lente a lo que está pasando en la escena; a la pose, al cuerpo, al bebé en brazos, a las expresiones y los detalles que se pueden percibir de estas mujeres. La composición de cada fotografía permite e incluso incentiva a tomarse el tiempo de observar los detalles. La composición trabaja a favor para que el observador se tome el tiempo de enfrentarse con lo que parece ser lo esencial para Dijkstra, aquello que se ha experimentado y que puede ser perceptible en el cuerpo, en los gestos de estas mujeres, que han dado a luz muy poco tiempo antes de ser retratadas.

Parece ser que Dijkstra se esfuerza por capturar la vivencia de un parto y representarlo únicamente a través de la imagen de la madre después de que ha atravesado el nacimiento de su hijo o hija. La fotógrafa construye la serie de tal manera que el observador sea invitado a analizar qué huellas existen y relaten acerca de lo experimentado, tanto en los rostros de las madres, como en sus posturas, semblante, en su cuerpo. Otra parte importante de esta representación es la presencia de los bebés y la manera en la que son cargados. 

Se puede concluir que Dijkstra busca producir fotografías en las cuales se establezca una comunicación entre la persona retratada y la persona que observa. Si bien Dijkstra compone las fotografías cuidadosamente en cuanto a iluminación, espacio, encuadre, enfoque, y la post selección de la imagen, parece no haber, sin embargo, un interés en “adornar” al sujeto retratado.

Las fotografías de New Mothers logran un encuentro visual entre las retratadas y los observadores. Por medio de la cámara de Dijkstra, los espectadores tenemos acceso a un momento clave, un punto de inflexión en la vida de estas mujeres. Ella representa este momento con su cámara de tal manera que confronte y comente presentaciones tradicionales de la maternidad y del parto, además que se interesa por una lectura multidimensional del mismo, que muestre varios aspectos de lo que significa convertirse en madre, alejándose de esta manera de una idealización. En estas imágenes existe un distanciamiento a una imagen idealizada y parcial de la madre. 

La representación de la maternidad y la madre ha sido idealizada a lo largo del tiempo. Una figura principal es la representación de la Virgen María en la tradición católica. La imagen idealizada continúa en cambio, sin embargo, se mantiene lejana a la realidad. 

Con relación a esto, Larissa Kikol menciona en su artículo “Liebe Mutter, Du Dilemma” (Querida madre, tú dilema) que en la actualidad la imagen de la madre ideal y bella ha sido reemplazada por la imagen de la madre emancipada que es una madre “no madre”. Es decir, la imagen ideal actual de las madres es que no se note que lo son, que no se vean huellas en su físico, en sus prioridades, en su tiempo. Kikol dice “Der Maßstab für eine Mutter ist also die kinderlose Frau. Je näher sie sich dieser Messlatte nähert, als umso emanzipierter gilt sie (La medida para la madre es, por lo tanto, la mujer sin hijos. Cuanto más se acerque a este estándar más se le considerará emancipada).” (Kikol, 2024)

Rineke Dijkstra pone énfasis en las madres, no en los bebes. A pesar de eso, los bebés forman parte esencial de las fotografías, sin ellos en las escenas el mensaje sería muy distinto. El punto clave, sin embargo, está en las madres, en su corporeidad, en sus gestos. Así como en lo “terrenal” de parir, mostrando fluidos como el sudor en las frentes, o el fluido de sangre consecuencia del parto, mostrando la sutura fresca de una cesárea y la ropa íntima que se puede usar ante el abundante sangrado posterior. A los bebés de las fotografías se los ve desnudos, con su piel arrugada y rojiza.

Toda esta representación se aleja considerablemente de la presentación “celestial” por ejemplo de la Virgen María con el niño Jesús. Imágenes en las cuales la madre carga con ternura a su bebé de rosas mejillas, envuelto en sábanas. 

En la entrevista “Realism in the Smallest Details” realizada por Jan van Adrichem y publicada en el libro Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective Dijkstra comenta acerca de cómo inició para ella el interés por realizar esta serie y da a conocer detalles acerca de este trabajo. Primero, Dijkstra menciona como su proceso de decidir fotografiar a un sujeto en especial conlleva experimentar, analizar, alejarse y volver al tema. La fotógrafa sostiene que de esta manera logra acercarse a una realidad esencial del sujeto. 

“Sometimes I get an idea right away; I come across a subject and know how I want to photograph it. But usually it´s a process –trying something out, putting it aside, and going back to it later. You can never say, “Now I’ve devised a formula where it all works.” It’s always better to observe, to improvise, and to see what happens. By doing that you ultimately get closer to an underlying reality. The New Mothers series (…) is a good example of how an idea comes about for me. In these works– and in another series (…) I wanted to investigate whether it was possible to capture opposite emotions in a single image: pain and exhaustion in contrast with relief and euphoria. It was about photographing people immediately an intense physical and emotional experience– in the case of the young mothers, right after the birth of their first child.” ( Van Adrichem, 2012, 48). 

En la entrevista, Dijkstra señala también el primer acercamiento que tuvo a esta serie y su interés en mostrar a través de su cámara la compleja y ambivalente realidad del parto y el convertirse en madre.

“The idea for the mother photographs had come to me a few years earlier, when my best friend was about to have her first child. I was there when it happened and saw her gradually experience more and more pain until finally she was out of reach, no longer present. I missed the actual birth, but when it was finally over, she showed me the baby, very proud but very emotional too– happy, confused, and tired. It was all so different from what I had expected! You always see photographs of mothers with their babies where everything seems veiled in a cloud of pink.” ( Van Adrichem, 2012, 48).

La serie “New Mothers” presenta a tres mujeres que han dado a luz a sus primeros hijos o hijas. Cada mujer fue fotografiada en un determinado tiempo después del parto. Julie, la mujer en la fotografía Julie, Den Hague, The Netherlands, February 29, 1994 fue retratada instantes después de dar a luz. Dijkstra comenta incluso, como ella escuchó desde un espacio cercano a donde se estaba llevando a cabo el parto, todo acerca de este momento tan íntimo y fotografió a la nueva madre minutos después del nacimiento. Tecla, la mujer en la fotografía Tecla, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, May 16, 1994 fue retratada al siguiente día de haber traído su bebé al mundo. Y finalmente Saskia en la imagen Saskia, Harderwijk, The Netherlands, March 16, 1994 fue fotografiada una semana después de tener a su bebé por medio de una cesárea. 

Esta información nos indica lo importante que era para Dijkstra el fotografiar la transición a ser madre, poco después de que el parto se ha llevado a cabo. Probablemente, fue determinante también para Dijkstra tomar las fotografías antes de ocurra un proceso de asimilación en las madres acerca de aquello que acababan de experimentar. 

Por otro lado, los títulos de las imágenes vuelven a confirmar cómo para la fotógrafa lo esencial en esta serie son las mujeres que experimentan este cambio importante en su vida. Los títulos informan el nombre de las mujeres y el lugar y fecha donde fueron fotografiadas. A forma de documentar por un lado el momento, pero también hace ahínco en la experiencia vivida por estas mujeres en particular, en la transición experimentada por Julie, Tecla y Saskia.  A diferencia de la obra que veremos brevemente a continuación, Dijkstra tematiza el convertirse en madre a través de las imágenes de estas mujeres. Como se ha observado, su objetivo parece ser presentar lo ambivalente, multidimensional que es convertirse en madre y alejarse así de representaciones idealizadas. Dijkstra parece intentar dar cabida en sus fotografías a la complejidad de este tema, a la variedad de emociones y sensaciones que conllevan este proceso y esta transición. 

En la obra Ten Months (1979) de la estadounidense Susan Hiller, la perspectiva es otra. A diferencia de Dijkstra que captura y compone fotografías en las cuales investiga visualmente lo que significa convertirse en madre a través de la observación de otras personas, en la obra de Hiller, es la artista misma la que experimenta este proceso y lo representa a través de una instalación compuesta de fotografías y texto.  Susan Hiller documenta en Ten Months los cambios tanto físicos como psicológicos que experimenta en su embarazo, observa a través de anotaciones y fotografías el camino a convertirse en madre.

Como indica Andrea Liss, la intención inicial de Hiller no era convertir esta documentación en una pieza artística. Hiller comenzó capturando fotos diarias de cuerpo completo, documentando los cambios que estaba atravesando en diversos aspectos. Liss relata que fue solo después del nacimiento de su hijo que Hiller decidió construir una pieza artística a partir de esas fotografías. Para esto lo que realizó fue tomar de cada foto solo una sección, la del crecimiento progresivo de su vientre.

Andrea Liss sostiene 

“(…) her photographs distance the body from its owner in images that paradoxically convey the witnessing detail of medical photographs and an inviting sense of lovely eroticism. These images immediately suggest the moon in all of its subtle phases from new to crescent to half and, finally, to full.” (Liss, 2009, 12)

Ante esto Liss acota lo siguiente acerca de esta obra y la representación del embarazo para el discurso patriarcal, 

“Patriarchal discourse had schizophrenically coded pregnancy as that which should not and could not be seen; its obscenity would risk revealing the sexuality and passion that created the child.” (Liss, 2009, 13)

La foto instalación 10 Months de Susan Hiller está construida de la siguiente manera. 10 paneles de fotografías compuestas están colocados uno al lado del otro de manera escalada, acompañando a las fotografías se encuentra un panel de texto colocado en la parte superior de cada imagen. Las imágenes miden 21x 54cm, mientras que cada panel de texto mide 11.8 x 39.7x 3.5 cm.  El tamaño de la obra instalada es de aproximadamente 203x 518 cm.

Cada panel de imágenes muestra fotografías en primer plano del vientre de la artista embarazada, en estas imágenes se presenta el crecimiento del vientre.  Es necesario enfatizar que, debido al primer plano de las fotografías, la artista consigue una abstracción de la imagen. Es decir, solo se observa la forma redondeada del vientre, lo cual vuelve ambigua la apreciación y abre la posibilidad a otras lecturas y relaciones. Hiller no presenta su cuerpo entero de embarazada en proceso de cambio, si no que se concentra en la forma circular de su vientre. Utiliza este recorte de la imagen, el vientre como forma aislada del cuerpo, como símbolo de la transición y desarrollo que está atravesando.

Al analizar la obra de Hiller, Andrea Liss sugiere que la abstracción del vientre materno se vincula con la fase lunar, la cual frecuentemente se asocia con el ciclo menstrual y el de la gestación. Para Liss, el hecho de presentar el desarrollo de su embarazo de una forma abstraída es una estrategia para distanciarse de una lectura patriarcal de sentimentalismo. Esto puede indicar que Hiller tiene la intención de controlar la apreciación de su obra y alejarla tanto de la valoración sentimentalista patriarcal, así como dotarle de una lectura que expanda ciertos pensamientos de corrientes feministas de su época, en los cuales el sentimentalismo o el ser madre se podía comprender como una razón de entorpecimiento en el desarrollo de una mujer artista.  Puesto en palabras de Liss:

“This distancing strategy was part of a larger cultural strategy of the period in which it was absolutely necessary for feminist artists to avoid any imagery that would code their art, especially work that dealt with anything female– motherhood being the most debased– as “sentimental.”

 “So the perennial insult of sentimentality masked true sentiment and deep feeling, which in contemporary terms deflects, insults, and embarrasses the passion that is erotic sentiment. To avoid falling into the patriarchal trap of false sentiment, including restrictive and false images of pregnancy created by men, women have either gone along with this hoax or declined to participate. Hiller’s serious play on her pregnant body and women’s historical bodies refused to hide the mother’s sexuality and the obvious reality of pregnancy. (…) Thus Hiller cleverly represented this reality, this “sentimentality” of pregnancy, within the coded grids of the contact sheets that tempered the visual representation of the pregnant body. Deeply aware of the importance that her project appear, as she characterized it during our interview, “rigorous,” Hiller nonetheless allowed the abstracted photographs of her belly to appear as she put it, “seductive,” a quality that they achieved in part through the infinite photographic gradations between black and white. Paradoxically, the charm and power of these photographs are that as the pregnant belly grows larger– the patriarchal object of disdain– it can hardly be contained within Hiller’s photographic frames.” (Liss, 2009, 13)

Conclusión

Tanto la serie de fotografías de Rineke Dijkstra como la foto instalación de Susan Hiller presentan enfoques distintos al acto de convertirse en madre. A pesar de que son proyectos realizados en diferentes décadas, es interesante considerar como cada una de las artistas presenta su postura a esta transición desde un enfoque individual. 

Ambas representaciones examinan el tema desde su complejidad, tanto individual como social.  Dijkstra presta su atención a las huellas del cuerpo y las huellas emocionales o mentales que puedan ser visibles en los gestos de las mujeres que ha decidido fotografiar.  Mientras que Hiller se enfoca en su propia experiencia de transición y la muestra a través de la forma abstraída de su vientre.

Cada una de las obras se orienta en aspectos diferentes de la transición a la maternidad, sin embargo, las dos buscan alejarse de idealizaciones. Tanto Dijkstra, como Hiller abordan la maternidad y la figura de la madre a través del arte. Las mismas insertan su aporte al debate de la maternidad, que a pesar de que este debate ha ido evolucionando a lo largo de los años, todavía subsisten importantes puntos por discutir y reexaminar.  Como se mencionó anteriormente, el concepto de la madre ideal ha ido cambiando durante los años, sin embargo, se ha mantenido constante lejano a la realidad. A menudo, la maternidad es observada desde pocos ángulos en la sociedad, reduciendo su complejidad y dejando de lado las múltiples facetas y formas en las que se da, se crea, se vive y se entiende la maternidad. 

Finalmente, en este texto se ha observado la serie fotográfica de Rineke Dijkstra y se ha considerado como se trata el tema de la maternidad en sus imágenes. La breve examinación de la obra de Susan Hiller ha aportado al ensayo con otra perspectiva. A diferencia de Dijkstra, Hiller utiliza el enfoque de la artista-madre y aborda el tema desde la primera persona.

En resumen, se puede concluir que tanto Dijkstra, como Hiller apuntan con sus obras a un -repensar- la maternidad, no solo por parte de la sociedad, pero también concretamente en los círculos del arte. Y, sobre todo, reiterar en que el tema de la maternidad y el maternar merece ser un tema para discutir, dentro de las prácticas artísticas, pero también más allá, abordando los diferentes aspectos de la misma.

Si consideramos brevemente la obra de Rineke Dijkstra a través de la perspectiva de Andrea Liss, en las fotografías de Dijkstra, a pesar de haber sido producidas aproximadamente 15 años después de la obra de Hiller, se puede identificar también que hay un distanciamiento por parte de la fotógrafa de una representación estandarizada, sentimentalista, y tradicional de la maternidad.

En sus imágenes, Rineke Dijkstra opta por representar esta transición mediante la captura visual de gestos y expresiones corporales que reflejan el momento culminante previo a la asimilación o asimilación del cambio en la vida cotidiana.

Bibliografía

  • Dijkstra, R./ Hasselblad Foundation/ Wolthers, L./ Vujanović Östlind, D./ Blessing, J./ Fuchs, R.: WO MEN, Hasselblad Foundation, Gothenburg 2017. 
  • Dijkstra, Rineke / Holm, M.: The Louisiana Book [Cat.Ex.] Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Louisiana [a.o] 2017.
  • Dijkstra, R./ Guggenheim Museum Publications/ San Francisco Museum of Modern Art: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012,
  • Kikol, Larissa: “Liebe Mutter, Du Dilemma”, en: KUNSTFORUM International, Bd. 295, Mutter-schafft, abril-mayo 2024.
  • Liss, Andrea:  Feminist Art and the Maternal, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 2009.
  • Phillips, Sandra S.: Twenty Years of Looking at People, en:  Dijsktra, R./ Guggenheim Museum Publications/ San Francisco Museum of Modern Art: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications,New York/ San Francisco 2012, pp. 13-27.
  • Adrichem, Jan van.: Realism in the smallest details. Rineke Dijkstra interviewed by Jan van Adrichem, en: Dijkstra, R./ Guggenheim Museum Publications/ San Francisco Museum of Modern Art: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012, pp. 45-60.
  • Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective que acompañó la exhibición bajo el mismo nombre presentada en San Francisco Museum of Modern Art del 18 de febrero al 28 de mayo del año 2012 y en Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, del 28 de junio al 3 de octubre del mismo año.
  • Datos de las medidas de la obra Ten Months tomados de la pág. Web de National Gallery of Art:  https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.222891.html (Ultimo acceso 1 junio 2024)

Una interacción entre -mostrar y no mostrar

en la fotografía en color Highly carcinogenic blue asbestos waste on the Owendale Asbestos Mine tailings dump, near Postmasburg, Northern Cape. The prevailing wind was in the direction of the mine officials’ houses at right. 21 December, 2002 de David Goldblatt.

Introducción

El fotógrafo David Goldblatt nace en el año 1930 en Randfontein, un pueblo cerca de Johannesburgo en Sudáfrica. Se dedicó por décadas a la fotografía hasta poco antes de su muerte en junio del año 2018.

Para Goldblatt, las revistas ilustradas como Look, Life o el Picture Post jugaron un rol importante en despertar su interés por la fotografía documental.1 Desde los años 60 David Goldblatt se dedicó enteramente a la fotografía y registró la vida cotidiana de Sudáfrica a lo largo de casi 60 años. 

En su producción fotográfica, Goldblatt prestó especial atención al sistema del Apartheid, que era la política de segregación establecida en Sudáfrica a partir el año 1948 después de que el National Party (el Partido nacional) suba al poder.2 

A lo largo de su carrera, Goldblatt publicó varios fotolibros y fotoensayos; participó en numerosas exposiciones colectivas como por ejemplo la Documenta 12 de Kassel en el año 2007, así como en exhibiciones individuales. Una de sus últimas exposiciones individuales se presentó en el Centre Georges Pompidou en Paris en el año 2018, titulada Structures of Dominion and Democracy. 

On Common Ground fue la primera exposición post mortem de Goldblatt, inaugurada el 28 de julio del 2018. La misma fue comisariada por Paul Weinberg y presentó el trabajo de los fotógrafos David Goldblatt y Peter Magubane, estableciendo un diálogo visual entre ambos cuerpos de trabajo. 

Una de las exhibiciones colectivas más actuales en las que participaron fotografías de Goldblatt, fue la exposición Dialoge im Wandel (Diálogos en transición) inaugurada en el museo Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen en Düsseldorf, Alemania en abril de 2022, presentando imágenes de The Walther Collection, en su mayoría de artistas fotógrafos africanos.3

El presente ensayo observará la fotografía de David Goldblatt titulada Highly carcinogenic blue asbestos waste on the Owendale Asbestos Mine tailings dump, near Postmasburg, Northern Cape. The prevailing wind was in the direction of the mine officials’ houses at right. 21 December, 2002. (Residuos de asbesto azul altamente cancerígeno en el vertedero de residuos de la mina de asbesto de Owendale, cerca de Postmasburg, Northern Cape. El viento predominante iba en dirección a las casas de los funcionarios de la mina, a la derecha. 21 de diciembre de 2002.). Este análisis propone examinar la fotografía antes mencionada y contemplar a través de esta cómo David Goldblatt aborda temas relacionados a la historia social y política de Sudáfrica en la época posterior del Apartheid mediante una interacción entre mostrar/no mostrar, es decir, proponiendo un diálogo entre visibilidad e invisibilidad. 

Para realizar este análisis me apoyaré en el texto del filósofo Dieter Mersch (1951) Ambiguitäten des Zeigens. Kleine Theorie monstrativer Praktiken (2016) el cual será un instrumento interesante para considerar las decisiones intrínsecas entre el acto de mostrar y no mostrar.

Desarrollo

Un tema fundamental en los ensayos fotográficos de Goldblatt es la vida diaria bajo el sistema de segregación que regía en Sudáfrica desde el año 1948 hasta el año 1991.4 El Apartheid fue un sistema establecido que promulgó la segregación racial y la discriminación en el país y exigía el desarrollo segregado de los distintos grupos raciales de Sudáfrica.5 

En Sudáfrica en épocas del Apartheid, la fotografía documental jugó un papel importante en la difusión y circulación de imágenes que intentaban visibilizar los conflictos internos y el sistema violento que regía al país.6 Por ejemplo, el colectivo de fotógrafos fundado alrededor del año 1981 bajo el nombre de Afrapix, practicaban la llamada “Struggle Photography”;7 estos fotógrafos se concentraban en capturar escenas de los tantos conflictos, protestas y represión que sucedían en las calles del país, con la intención de visualizar y difundir tanto a nivel nacional como internacional lo que sucedía en Sudáfrica bajo este sistema.8

David Goldblatt sostenía, sin embargo, que la cámara fotográfica no debería ser considerada un arma o un aparato encargado de una misión. David Goldblatt persiguió, por ende, otro método para representar la situación, él buscó abordar este conflicto a partir de imágenes de la vida diaria, donde se podía observar los problemas del sistema entramados ya en la cotidianeidad.  Gran parte de sus proyectos fotográficos se enfocan en imágenes de la vida diaria que exponen, por ejemplo, el racismo y la segregación en la época del Apartheid.  Ziebinska-Lewandowska argumenta:

“On several occasions David Goldblatt has affirmed that the photographic apparatus is not a weapon for him, adding that he understood very early on that he was not vested with a mission. These words pronounced publicly- notably during the congress “The Culture and Resistance” […] provoked heated reactions within the activist milieu participating in the event. Among the critics were some of Goldblatt´s colleagues and friends, members of Afrapix […] for whom denouncing the malfunction and crimes of apartheid through photography was a duty. While he supported their actions, Goldblatt was not a member of Afrapix and did not share their strategy. He was nevertheless considered to be one of the most uncompromising detractors of the system of apartheid and his photographs attest to this.”9

Como se ha señalado anteriormente, Goldblatt consideraba que la fotografía no debería tener un rol de activa denuncia y de lucha. Aun cuando David Goldblatt mantenía una opinión diferente en cuanto a la función de denuncia de la fotografía, significó un firme apoyo para sus colegas fotógrafos. 

A lo largo de su carrera, Goldblatt construyó paulatinamente un estilo fotográfico reflectivo y contemplativo. Como se señaló anteriormente, a pesar de la violencia diaria que enfrentaba su país, él tomó la decisión de utilizar un enfoque contemplativo en sus fotografías y buscó un método enfocado en las imágenes cotidianas, para registrar la situación.10 En resumen, Goldblatt puso en marcha una búsqueda de hacer visible el Apartheid empleando una estrategia distinta a la que, por ejemplo, empleaba la Struggle Photography. Como apunta Godby “[…] this was a gradual process and it involved him changing his approach to equipment, style, printing techniques, and book design. Above all, this change in photographic practice involved transforming his relationship to the subject matter.[…]”11

Con el desarrollo de este -enfoque contemplativo- Goldblatt recurrió a la fotografía de estructuras y espacios urbanos para reflexionar sobre la situación en Sudáfrica.12

La fotografía Highly carcinogenic blue asbestos waste on the Owendale Asbestos Mine tailings dump, near Postmasburg, Northern Cape. The prevailing wind was in the direction of the mine officials’ houses at right. 21 December, 2002, en la cual se centra el presente artículo, fue parte del ensayo fotográfico titulado Intersections publicado en el año 2005. Con este ensayo fotográfico, Goldblatt se sumergía por primera vez en la fotografía de color y experimentaba con impresiones digitales.13

La fotografía en cuestión presenta un gran plano general de un paisaje de rocas, en el que la riqueza de texturas es una característica fundamental. La composición está planteada de tal manera que solo una pequeña franja celeste- grisácea del cielo, la cual ocupa solo una pequeña parte del tercio superior de la imagen, contrasta con la porosidad del resto de la toma. Es decir, el paisaje rocoso ocupa la mayor parte de la imagen; el primer plano, el plano medio, así como el fondo. Fusionándose con el color marrón grisáceo de las rocas de este paisaje, el color celeste intenso de las fibras de asbesto es visible en más de ¾ partes de la imagen. Estas fibras celestes se encuentran repartidas por todo el espacio. En el tercio horizontal inferior del encuadre, el ángulo de la toma permite apreciar de forma detallada la textura de las rocas, y entre ellas, el asbesto azul. Este ángulo del encuadre facilita el sentido de espacialidad; el mismo es acentuado por la contrastante perspectiva entre las rocas que se perciben de tamaño grande en la parte inferior de la composición y las rocas del fondo que se aprecian con menos textura y menos contraste de color gris-marrón. Las fibras de asbestos resaltan entre las rocas de tal manera que son capaces de crear una ruta visual y guiar la mirada a través del paisaje. 

En esta imagen, David Goldblatt trata el tema de la minera de asbestos en Sudáfrica y sus fatales consecuencias. La fotografía fue realizada en el año 2002, cuando los restos de este material tóxico aún eran visibles en la tierra, a pesar de que la mina de asbestos había sido cerrada en el año 1984.14  Solamente después de la caída del Apartheid, se empezó a tomar en cuenta como las personas habían sido (y para el momento de la captura de la fotografía) seguían siendo afectadas por esta industria minera, a la vez de la contaminación ambiental que provocaba.15  

David Goldblatt se interesó por mostrar en sus fotografías lugares/estructuras/paisajes aparentemente vacíos y tranquilos, sin embargo, los mismos tras una pausada observación presentan en realidad indicios de cómo las decisiones de una sociedad pueden permanecer -entretejidos- en las estructuras y los paisajes.16 (esto es un ejemplo del enfoque contemplativo que se mencionó anteriormente) Mduduzi Xacaza concluye que David Goldblatt comenta fotográficamente las decisiones de una sociedad.

“In Goldblatt’s exploration of the visible signs of economic violence, what is remarkable in many of his photographs from both Apartheid and post-Apartheid periods (including the one under analysis), is the ability to employ sharp photographic vision of what can say volumes, though in a seemingly mundane manner, about the beliefs and values of the South African society.”17 

Retomando la cita de Xacaza, se concluye que Goldblatt utiliza un lenguaje visual de lo cotidiano en su fotografía, a partir de esto me gustaría retomar el foco de atención en la imagen en cuestión. En esta foto, David Golblatt presenta un paisaje natural cotidiano, en el cual se puede observar riqueza de texturas, colores y tonos. Sin embargo, el fotógrafo utiliza este lenguaje visual para representar un problema que se encuentra enraizado tanto en la naturaleza como en la sociedad post Apartheid. En este sentido, en esta fotografía se puede apreciar la manera en la que Goldblatt presenta un tema sensible a través del uso de imágenes cotidianas.

En proyectos anteriores, Goldblatt ya había trabajado con la problemática alrededor de campos de minería en Sudáfrica durante el Apartheid. En el año 1973 publicó su libro fotográfico titulado On the Mines, en el cual se concentra en la industria minera de oro y su impacto en la gente, en la vida diaria y en el paisaje. Este foto-ensayo incluye una observación del trabajo bajo tierra, de estructuras, además de retratos detallados de personas dedicadas a la minería.18 Sally Gaule destaca como On the Mines presenta una lectura del zeitgeist en épocas del Apartheid. 

“Together, these chapters explore the backbone of Johannesburg’s mining economy; of its technology, the forces that shaped the mining industry itself and the range of persons engaged in mining operations, (…). Moreover, the publication is also a perceptive assessment of the zeitgeist of South Africa during apartheid.”19

En la fotografía Highly carcinogenic blue asbestos waste on the Owendale Asbestos Mine tailings dump, near Postmasburg, Northern Cape. The prevailing wind was in the direction of the mine officials’ houses at right. 21 December, 2002. Goldblatt tiene otro acercamiento a la minería, esta vez a través de la observación de estructuras y de paisajes prácticamente construidos por el ser humano. Otro dato elemental es que esta y las otras fotografías de la serie llamada Intersections (2005), se realizaron años después del Apartheid. 

La pregunta central de este texto busca reflexionar de qué manera la forma en la que Goldblatt construyó esta fotografía demuestra como él trabaja con los motivos, las temáticas que le interesan y a su vez las decisiones que él toma en el acto de fotografiar. Tomando en consideración la interacción entre visibilidad e invisibilidad en esta fotografía, es oportuno observar cómo la misma presenta al espectador un paisaje aparentemente tranquilo que exhibe una armoniosa combinación y gradación de colores y matices pero que en realidad esconde un predominante peligro.  Este juego entre visibilidad y aparente invisibilidad, o, mejor dicho, la decisión consciente acerca de qué mostrar y qué dejar fuera del encuadre, podemos analizarlo trayendo a la discusión la premisa que el filósofo Dieter Mersch provee en su texto Ambiguitäten des Zeigens (2016) acerca del -mostrar-.  Dieter Mersch sostiene que el acto de -mostrar- algo, está necesariamente atravesado por la decisión de -no mostrar-. “[…] mit jeder Entscheidung, auf etwas Bestimmtes zu zeigen, [ist] gleichzeitig schon die Entscheidung, etwas anderes nicht zu zeigen, verbunden […]”20 Lo cual significa que algunos de los elementos han sido excluidos de aquello que está siendo presentado, es decir, lo -no expuesto- tiene, en ese caso, su propio relato. Mersch apunta: 

“[…] Im ersten Fall versteht man Zeigen performativ, im zweiten ostensiv bzw. transitiv, doch birgt letzteres die systematische Schwierigkeit, dass, wo auf etwas Bestimmtes gezeigt und damit etwas anderes ausgeschlossen wird, dieser Ausschluss nicht selbst wiederum gezeigt werden kann, denn Zeigen adressiert immer nur ein Dieses, sei es im Sinne einer Pointierung oder einer Präsentation. Verweigere ich deshalb im Akt des Zeigens ein anderes Zeigen, habe ich es bereits „als“ etwas anderes markiert, d.h. der bestimmten Negation unterzogen, was mit Bezug auf die Zuwendung oder Adressierung sicher eine unangemessene Formulierung darstellt.“21

Es esta conciencia de lo que -no está siendo presentado- que encuentro interesante de observar en la fotografía de Goldblatt. Considero que Goldblatt construye una fotografía, cuya composición establece un juego entre lo que se presenta y no se presenta. En un primer vistazo, la fotografía en cuestión parece mostrar solamente un paisaje de naturaleza. Sin embargo, es después de una observación detallada (y la inclusión del título de la misma, al cual volveré en un instante) lo que lleva a considerar aquello que esta imagen está mostrando entretejido en el paisaje. 

Ahora, retomando el título de la imagen, es importante considerar el papel que este juega en su interpretación. La información que el autor provee a través del título, guía a los sujetos observadores a considerar otros aspectos de lo que la fotografía aparentemente muestra. Esta manera de incluir los títulos de la fotografía en la interpretación es un aspecto que se encuentra a lo largo de su producción. Goldblatt emplea este tipo de títulos de carácter documental en la mayoría de sus imágenes, los títulos proveen normalmente la descripción de lo que se muestra o la persona o personas retratadas, el año y el lugar donde se capturó. Además, muchas veces incluye una explicación un tanto más ampliada, como en el caso de la imagen que hemos analizado en este artículo.

El lenguaje visual que escoge Goldblatt para mostrar y comentar acerca de las huellas de un componente tóxico en el paisaje, es presentarlo de tal manera que parezca ser parte de la vida diaria. Es de cierta forma una manera silenciosa de invitar a observar. Propongo que David Goldblatt, se interesa por el comentario que provee aquello que se muestra en la imagen, tanto como aquello que no se muestra o que pareciera permanecer invisible (como el asbesto azul, por ejemplo). Goldblatt hace uso del mostrar y también de lo que conscientemente deja en campos de lo -no mostrado-.

Conclusion

Después de observar la fotografía de David Goldblatt Highly carcinogenic blue asbestos waste on the Owendale Asbestos Mine tailings dump, near Postmasburg, Northern Cape. The prevailing wind was in the direction of the mine officials’ houses at right. 21 December, 2002, se ha definido que David Goldblatt utiliza una interacción entre -lo que se muestra y lo que no se muestra- para abordar un tema como la presencia de fibras tóxicas de asbesto azul en el paisaje de Sudáfrica, 18 años después del cierre de la mina de asbestos que operaba en este lugar. El presente texto se propuso determinar de qué manera la fotografía en cuestión puede ejemplificar la forma de trabajar de Goldblatt. La imagen que ha sido observada expone un ejemplo del abordaje contemplativo. Es decir, es una muestra de cómo él se interesa en aplicar su lenguaje fotográfico para tratar un tema en específico. 

A pesar de que el fin del Apartheid significó para Sudáfrica un periodo de reconstrucción y cambio político, las relaciones de poder, así como las consecuencias de un largo periodo bajo este régimen continuaron siendo visibles en la cultura material como en la arquitectura, el paisaje y los monumentos.22 La fotografía examinada en este artículo es un ejemplo de cómo él exhibe estos vestigios/remanentes en sus imágenes.

El traer a la discusión la argumentación de Dieter Mersch acerca del acto de mostrar y no mostrar, ha contribuido para considerar el relato/comentario de aquello que se ha dejado conscientemente fuera del encuadre. En el caso de la imagen revisada, Goldblatt incluye en la fotografía las fibras de asbestos, sin embargo, la composición no destaca únicamente estas fibras, por ejemplo, no se ha aplicado un primerísimo primer plano a las fibras azules o no se ha colocado el foco del lente únicamente en estas. 

Se puede argumentar que lo que le interesa mostrar a Goldblatt, es la presencia de estas fibras tóxicas en el ambiente de una manera prácticamente silente. En lo que respecta a esta fotografía, -lo no mostrado-, es decir, lo que se ha dejado fuera del encuadre ha sido de alguna manera incluido en el título de esta. Finalmente, como se ha discutido, la información que se incluye en el título es el elemento que finalmente revela el peligro que sugiere esta imagen. 

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Notas

  1.  Cf. Goldblatt, 55. With an essay by Lesley Lawson, 2001.
  2. Cf. Hayes, P., 2007, p. 144/ Cf. David L. Krantz, 2008, pp. 294-295.
  3.  Ver: Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen,  https://www.kunstsammlung.de/en/exhibitions/the-walther-collection-photography (Recuperado en 10.02.23).
  4.  Cf. South African History Online, A History of Apartheid in South Africa, 2016, URL: http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-apartheid-south-africa (Recuperado en 27.01.23).
  5.  Cf. South African History Online, A History of Apartheid in South Africa, 2016, URL: http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-apartheid-south-africa (Recuperado en 27.01.23).
  6.  Cf. Newbury, 2009, p.5.
  7.  David L. Krantz explica el término Struggle Photography: “Resistance or Struggle Photography is the term used by South African antiapartheid photographers to describe a genre of photography that is political in its stance. Its intention, beyond the aesthetic, is to document the conflicts between oppressors and their victims so as alert, persuade and elicit support for the oppressed. The reality captured by the photograph is from the vantage point of the subjugated person. Important examples of resistance photography are provided by the work of the Afrapix collective. During the 1980s Afrapix photographs contributed to the culture of struggle that played such an important role in mobilizing local and international response against repression of the country’s vast majority Black population by the apartheid regime.”  (David L. Krantz: Politics and Photography in Apartheid South Africa, History of Photography, 2008, p. 290.)
  8.  Cf. Newbury, 2009, p.240.
  9.  Ziebinska-Lewandowska, Photography as an act of thinking, 2018, p. 21.
  10.  Cf. Godby, David Goldblatt. The personal and the political, 2001, p. 416.
  11.  Godby, David Goldblatt. The personal and the political, 2001, p. 416.
  12.  Cf. Godby, Constructions, Changes in the view of the city in fifty years of David Godlblatt´s photography, 2010, p. 177.
  13.  Cf. Bajorek, 2015, p.222. /Cf. Bester, R., 2007, p. 21. 
  14.  Cf. Xakaza, 2015, p.162.  
  15.  Cf. Xakaza, 2015, p.162.  
  16.  Cf. Godby, David Goldblatt. The personal and the political, 2001, p. 421. / Cf. Linden, 2011, p. 350.
  17.  Cf. Xakaza, 2015, pp.163-164.
  18.  Cf. Bester R., 2007, p. 13. / Cf. Gaule, 2014.
  19.  Gaule, 2014, p.127.
  20. Mersch, Ambiguitäten des Zeigens. Kleine Theorie monstrativer Praktiken, 2016, p. 65. “[…] con cada decisión de señalar algo específico [está] al mismo tiempo, ya vinculada la decisión de no señalar otra cosa” (propia traducción al español).
  21. Mersch, Ambiguitäten des Zeigens. Kleine Theorie monstrativer Praktiken, 2016, p. 67.  “[…] En el primer caso, se entiende el señalar performativamente, en el segundo ostensiva o transitivamente, pero este último implica la dificultad sistemática de que allí donde se señala algo específico y, por tanto, se excluye otra cosa, esta exclusión no puede mostrarse a su vez, pues el señalar siempre se dirige sólo a un esto, ya sea en el sentido de un señalar o de un presentar. Si, por tanto, en el acto de señalar, niego otro señalamiento, ya lo he marcado “como” otra cosa, es decir, lo he sometido a la negación determinada, que es ciertamente una formulación inadecuada con referencia a la asignación o direccionamiento.” (propia traducción al español).
  22.   Cf. Linden, 2011, p. 350.

Bibliografia

  • Bajorek, Jennifer: On Colour Photography in an Extra-Moral Sense, en: Third Text, Noviembre, 2015, pp. 221–235, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09528822.2015.1106136 (Recuperado en: 10.01.2023).
  • Bester, Rory: David Goldblatt. Buch für Buch, en: Parr, M./ Goldblatt, D. [eds.]: David Goldblatt. Südafrikanische Fotografien. 1952-2006, Christoph Merian Verlag, Basel 2007, pp. 11-24.
  • Gaule, Sally: Mining photographs. David Goldblatt’s On the Mines, en: Social Dynamics 40:1, 2014, pp. 122-139, DOI: 10.1080/02533952.2014.884266. (Recuperado en 10.01.2023).
  • Godby, Michael: David Goldblatt. The Personal and the Political, en: Goldblatt, David Fifty-One Zears, Actar and Macba, Barcelona 2001, pp. 407-425.
  • Godby, Michael: Constructions. Changes in the View of the City in Fifty Years of David Godlblatt´s Photography, en: Farber, Leora [eds]: Representation and Spatial Practices in Urban South Africa, The Research Centre, Visual Identities in Art and Design, Johannesburg, 2010, pp. 170-183.
  • Goldblatt, David: 55. With an essay by Lesley Lawson, Phaidon, London, 2001.
  • Hayes, Patricia: Power, Secrecy, Proximity. A Short History of South African Photography, en, Kronos. Journarl of Cape History, Vol.33:1, Noviembre 2007, pp. 139-162.
  • Krantz, David L.: Politics and Photography in Apartheid South Africa, en: History of Photography, 32:4, pp-290-300, 2008, DOI: 10.1080/03087290802334885.
  • Linden, Anne: Photographs from the Intersections Series by David Goldblatt and the Question of Representation after Apartheid, en: Belting, H. [y.o.]: Global Studies. Mapping Contemporary Art and Culture, Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern, 2011, pp. 348-359.
  • Mersch, Dieter: Ambiguitäten des Zeigens. Kleine Theorie monstrativer Praktiken, en: Sykora, Katharina [y.o.]: Valenzen fotografischen Zeigens. Das fotografische Dispositiv, Band 3, Marburg 2016, pp. 51-73.
  • Newbury, Darren: Defiant Images. Photography and Apartheid South Africa, Unissa Press, Pretoria 2009.
  • South African History Online: A History of Apartheid in South Africa, 2016, URL: http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-apartheid-south-africa (Recuperado en 28.01.23).
  • Xakaza, M. M.: Power Relations in Landscape Photographs by David Goldblatt and Santu Mofokeng, Diss. University of the Western Cape, Western Cape, December 2015. Accesible en: (http://hdl.handle.net/11394/4846).
  • Ziebinska-Lewandowska, Karolina.: Photography as an Act of Thinking, en: K., Ziebinska-Lewandowska/ Goldblatt, David: David Goldblat. Structures of Dominion and Democracy [Ex.Cat], Centre Pompidou, Steidl, Paris 2018 pp. 20-27.

Rineke Dijkstra. The encounter between the photographer, the sitters and the viewer in the Beach Portrait Series.

The role of photography in the construction of identity.

An encounter between observing and being observed; detailed colored large-scaled depictions of young persons; the contemplative look of a subject. These are some of the key elements that we find in Dijkstra’s portraits, predominantly in the Beach Portraits series.  

The photographer Rineke Dijkstra born in 1959 in Sittard, the Netherlands, became involved with editorial photography after finishing her studies at the Rietveld Acadamie in Amsterdam. However, various circumstances distanced Dijkstra from editorial photography, and she changed the course of her photographic work. Her self-portrait, taken on June 19th of 1991, announced the beginning of a new exploration of photography and outlined the development of the Beach Portraits series.

Dijkstra’s interests have led her to work almost exclusively with young people. In her photographic projects and her videos, we find kids, teenagers, young mothers, young soldiers, and young adults. Rineke Dijkstra’s photography combines a unique focus on people experiencing a moment of transition with a carefully rendered technical procedure. 

“They are adolescents and young adults, young mothers, young soldiers, young toreros. They are at an age in which character traits are gradually beginning to form, in which there are already suggestions of distinctive attributes, but in which the features still make a very bland impression, almost like polished marble. Signs of time and of a personal history are barely visible.”

Dijkstra works with an analog 4×5 inch camera, which allows her to capture finely detailed images emphasizing the composition and the expression. Because the large format camera has no mirrors, the image appears 180° rotated. For that reason, the photographer establishes an interplay between composing the image through the viewfinder and looking at the sitters directly in the eyes to examine their facial expressions. Only then, she takes the picture. 

“The interesting thing about this working method is that Dijkstra does not immediately see the final image, unlike a photographer with a digital camera. […] The actual, final image remains elusive, almost Platonic, until the development stage, when the finished photos contain an element of surprise for Dijkstra herself.”

Rineke Dijkstra composes portraits that encourage a contemplative approach. The way she constructs her photographs enhances the detailed observation of the subject; by extension, she pursues the interaction between the spectator/camera/model and the photographer.  

On several occasions, Dijkstra has explained how she usually chooses the subjects and approaches the people for her portraits. A decisive requisite for finding the subjects of her pictures is that the photographer identifies herself in a certain way with the person. 

First, the selection of the persons to photograph and later, the relationship between photographer/model turns into something noteworthy. The models of Dijkstra’s portraits receive minimal instructions from the photographer, which means that they are who decide how to present themselves in front of the camera.  

While Dijkstra is preparing the camera, an interesting interaction takes place. The model is waiting and finding the way to pose and the expression to be conveyed and thus becoming aware of being photographed. 

Rineke Dijkstra composes simplified images where the subject is centered in the frame, and elements like background, lighting, and focus work towards emphasizing the portrayed person. In other words, the photographer takes the models out of their location; to some extent, she removes the subjects from their specific surroundings or context and presents them in front of neutral backgrounds. 

Rineke Dijkstra works with large or small series of portraits. Some of her projects  document a person along a certain period of time as for instance, in the series Almerisa or Olivier. Each of these series consists of several portraits of the same person with a similar, nearly identical composition on each image that allows the viewer to concentrate on the subject and how the course of time is reflected in their depiction.

In contrast, there are other groups of series that deal with distinct topics and portray different persons in the same series, such as Beach Portraits, Tiergarten, or New Mothers. Despite the fact that some pictures are captured outdoors like in the series Tiergarten or in closed, intimate spaces like in the series New Mothers or Almerisa, the use of light in all of Dijkstra’s series plays a decisive role in achieving images rich in color nuances; it could even be argued that these images have painterly features. The use of light in Dijkstra’s portraits has the characteristic of being evenly distributed and diffuse. The photographer herself has expressed the importance of the particular use of lighting in her pictures. Dijkstra explains that she manipulates the light in her photographs, aiming to obtain a “natural” light.

“[…] Of course I manipulate the light. But before I say more about that, I think I’d like to clear up a misunderstanding, which is that a photo is a reliable representation of reality. And I´m not talking about the difference between two and three dimensions, but simply about the difference between what your eye can see and what a camera lens or film can capture. Photos are so accurate, so detailed, that we´re inclined to think that they show us the “real world”. And yet, in reality our eyes see infinitely more than a photo could ever feature. […] Shadows, for example, are more likely to get blocked up on film, whereas highlights are blown out a lot more. That deviation is the main reason why I manipulate things: I want my photos to make you feel that you’re seeing reality the way an eye sees reality. […].”

With the intention to emulate how the eyes see reality, Dijkstra manipulates the light of her images and achieve portrayals that show the subject or subjects over a simple/unadorned, neutral background.

There are nearly no shadows in her portraits. The apparent simplification of the composition and isolation of the subject leads to a contemplative observation; thus, the little details are more noticeable. Dijkstra’s pictures are usually printed and reproduced in large formats; therefore, the viewer can carefully observe each detail of the body, the face, and the expression of the portrayed person.

The Beach Portraits

The Beach Portraits (1992-2002) is the first project produced by Rineke Dijkstra as an autonomous photographer. 

The idea for this series began with a portrait that she took of herself in the year 1991. In 1990, after having a severe bicycle accident, swimming was part of Dijkstra’s rehabilitation program training. In the self-portrait entitled Self Portrait, Marnixbad, Amsterdam, Netherlands, June 19, 1991 (Fig.1), Rineke Dijkstra presents herself looking exhausted from swimming. In the picture, she is portrayed as she has recently jumped out of the pool. The white-yellowish ceramic tiles surround her and compose the environment of the picture. Dijkstra exposes her emotional/physical state directly to the camera. This picture was the groundwork for the development of the Beach Portraits series. 

Beach Portraits is comprised by 18 pictures photographed between 1992 and 2002. For this project, Dijkstra worked with a 4 x 5-inch large format camera with a fill-in flash; both camera and flash were placed on a tripod in order to limit the shadows and contrasts.

Dijkstra’s Beach seriesis made up mostly by individual portraits and, less frequently, group portraits of young people. The series portrays kids and teenagers wearing swimsuits standing on a beach in front of the sea. Rineke Dijkstra took the photographs in various places, such as the United States, Poland, England, Croatia, Ukraine (a.o.). The captions of each depiction document the place, the country, and the date when the photo was taken.

Every picture of Beach Portraits is composed as a long shot frame, capturing the subject from head to toes with only a part of the background visible behind. The photographs have the same arrangement of elements; namely, the model is placed frontal and centered in the frame with the beach as the background; this composition draws the attention to the subject, which is rendered in detail.

The background is reduced to parallel lines showing horizontal patterns of sky, sea, sand, and shells or pebbles. The isolated figure centered in the image builds a strong vertical line, which creates a cross-lines composition and brings balance to the elements in the depiction. 

The figures are captured from a low camera angle, thus, while observing the figures, the gaze is slightly directed upwards. The similar, nearly identical backgrounds, rendered in soft focus, emphasize the subject’s presence, and lead the attention to their figure or figures. The large-format depictions enable the exhaustive observation of the skin, hands, hair, clothing, and gestures. In this way, the viewer can contemplate the portrayed persons, get remarkably close (probably even a little closer than an everyday real-life encounter), and scrutinize them.

The way Dijkstra portrays these young persons seems to capture and reveal decisive moments of the sitters, a certain state of unease, a subtle gesture, elusive indecision in their standing, a moment between a pose and a natural state. In this light, it is significant to contemplate that despite the balanced, symmetric composition of the images, what is transmitted through the way the models pose evoke a certain awkwardness and imbalance.

“The austere compositions, almost identical camera placement, the sobriety of the background: these are elements which in a classical manner focus all attention on the person or persons. In their effect they also suggest balance, tranquility and harmony. But the poses inject restlessness; they are somewhat ill at ease, awkward, unfinished and therefore point to a susceptibility; they introduce doubt and uncertainty at a buried level.”  

The images of the series provide (visually speaking) just a little information about the environment or the specific place where the shot was taken. Dijkstra seems to erase and avoid all the details that could distract the viewer from the contemplative observation of the person. That means she aims for another kind of interaction between viewer and image, more like recognizing emotions, the imbalance, the process of change, and the sense of being observed. 

Beach Portraits inquiries about the self-presentation, the construction of identity, and how the portrayed personas manage the confrontation with the camera. A confrontation that makes them aware of being observed, of being photographed. 

“[…] I don’t want a pose in which people comply with a certain image they try to control and that reveals only the intention of how they want to be perceived. What they have naturally is far more interesting to me. I want them to concentrate on being photographed, but I wait for a moment in which they display a certain introversion. […]There has to be a tension in their posture or a gesture that distinguishes them from other people. I don’t look for it in big gestures but in small details.” 

It is the whole conjunction of the technical procedures, the chosen environment for the picture, the interaction between sitter, camera, photographer, and the formal arrangement that at the end make the portrayed persons display more of their individualy natural/awkward/ -authentic- self. 

The fact that Dijkstra has chosen children and young adolescents for her pictures is crucial because all of them are in a complex process of transition and questioning. Their identity is in the process of construction. In this respect, it can only be falsely claimed that grown-ups already have a static identity, but the process of changing that teenagers go through in their turning into adults is evidently visible, like in these portraits. Taking these ideas into account, one might wonder, isn’t identity a non-ending process of every human being?

It can be argued that Dijkstra’s decision to choose only young people for the pictures lies in the fact that, unlike grown-ups, children and teenagers are openly in the process of creating a specific image of themselves to show to the world. The poses, the gestures, the gaze of the portrayed allow perceiving a certain fragility in them. These young people are searching to compose their images in front of the camera, but their awkwardness and the frontal confrontation with it produce a tension. This tension is enhanced by the formal elements of the composition, the technical procedure, and the format of the reproductions.

The first portrait that I would like to take a closer look at was captured in the United States in the year 1992: Hilton Head Island, S.C., USA, June 24, 1992. (Fig. 2)

In the picture, we find the full-body portrait of a girl at the Hilton Head Island beach. In the background, the horizon line divides the depiction into two horizontal fragments. The upper section is the largest and presents a monochrome blue sky. In the lower section of the image, we can observe the sea and sand depicted with bluish-earth tones. Centered in the foreground, stands the figure of a girl in a full-length view as the central motif of the picture. The girl is depicted in a frontal pose, directly facing the camera; she is in focus, and her figure builds a vertical line in the composition that fills a large part of the frame. 

The portrait is captured from a lower vantage point, as aforementioned, Dijkstra applies this technique, which gives the model a certain monumentalized appearance. The portrayed girl has long blond hair; she is wearing make-up, jewelry, and a shiny orange bikini. She has her left hand slightly but also awkwardly placed on her thigh while with her right hand she holds her hair from the wind. Although she is facing the camera, the lower part of her body seems to be almost giving a step backward. The footprints on the sand suggest that she was trying different poses for the picture. The lighting conditions in the image are diffuse and create a blueish atmosphere in the whole portrayal. The atmosphere achieved by the lighting contrasts with the orange color of the bikini, producing a warm/cool color harmony. Dijkstra uses auxiliary light, even for the day and outdoors shots. The flashlight exposes the figure from the front, which is perceptible above all in the reflections of her skin. The employment of a flashlight in addition to the natural sunlight outlines the contours of the girl’s body. There is a certain unease in the girl’s facial expression as well as in her stance. The position of her feet, legs, arms, and hands denotes her intention to pose like a magazine model, but her body posture gives away her nervousness. 

“[…] Hilton Head Island, S.C., USA, June 24, 1992, features a girl who, despite Dijkstra’s request that she not wear makeup or jewelry to the session had taken great pains to compose herself as though she were posing for a magazine or advertisement.”

In this portrait, the interplay between the desire for an idealized perfect image and self-doubt is striking, and it is certainly what makes this picture so interesting. 

The following picture to be observed is Kolobrzeg, Poland, July 26, 1992.It was captured on a beach in Poland in 1992.(Fig. 3)

Centered and filling a big part of the frame, we find a full-length depiction of a young girl at the beach in this photo. She faces the camera and stands with her green swimsuit on a narrow strip of dry sand. Like a backdrop behind her back, the sky, sea, and sand are reduced to blurry parallel strips. The texture is formed by the clouds in the sky, the little waves, the sea-foam, and the contrast between the smooth wet sand and the irregular dry one. The chromatic of the picture presents a combination of warm earth tones and cooler bluish tones. The chromatic is strikingly accomplished in this and all the pictures of this series; the nuances and the relation between the colors have similar features to painting. 

“Rineke Dijkstra herself never says that she has been influenced by painting, and yet her work is often eminently painterly as regards her way of handling colour: the way in which she places her colours, their relationship to one another, the way in which one colour is taken up by another or contrasted by a third.”

Only the girl and the thin strip of sand where she stands are focused by the lens. Thus, the focus and the atmosphere, texture, and chromatic of the background make the subject stand out in the depiction. The girl is wearing a light green swimsuit, her head is slightly tilted to a side, and some strands of her hair flow gracefully with the wind. Like the girl with the orange bikini on Hilton Head Island, the girl in this portrait also has her hand resting on her thigh. Because of the position of her hips and legs, her body posture looks graceful and balanced like a contrapposto.  The girl is gazing directly into the camera with a shy but gentle facial expression. The fact that her posture is similar to a contrapposto evokes elegance and harmony. However, it is her shy look that predominates in the depiction.

Comparing both observed pictures, we can see that despite the resemblances in the composition and in the sitters, the difference in how they present themselves is remarkable. Both girls look timid and insecure. This is visible in their body posture as well as in their gestures. However, the way that the girl at Hilton Head Island tries to compose her own image through her make-up, her hairstyle, her jewelry, and her posture is contrasting with the way a girl of her same age in the other part of the world presents herself in front of the camera. Looking back to where both girls live, and the years when both pictures were taken, it can be argued that the difference between the self-presentation of both girls is due to the media influence. Consider for example the socio-political context of both images, namely, the fall of the Berlin wall just three years before these portraits were taken. The way both girls relate to their self-image within this broader context could be indicative of how influential the media is for the self-image building. It is clear that the girl in the USA aims to look like the idealized women she probably watched in magazines. In contrast, the girl in Poland looks shy and insecure but seems not to have such a solid mediatic influence and an idealized image from the media to follow.

The screen, the gaze, and the pose

In order to approach the role that photography has in showing the construction of identity I will employ three concepts developed by Kaja Silverman, namely, the concept of gaze, screen, and pose, which reveal the relational structures involved in the self-image building process.

In the book The threshold of the visible world (2006), Silverman considers a concept developed by Lacan, namely the mirror stage. “In his account for the mirror stage, Lacan paradoxically insists on both the “otherness” and the “sameness” of the image within which the child first finds its “self”. On the one hand, the mirror stage represents a méconnaisance, because the subject identifies with what he or she is not. On the other hand, what he or she sees when looking into the mirror is literally his or her own image.  Following Lacan, Silverman understand the construction of one’s self as the recognition of oneself in an alienated reflected image and thus as the intersection between the act of seeing and being seen. By linking this understanding to analysis of visual representations she then goes on to develop the concepts of gaze, screen, and pose, which will serve as interpretative tools for my analysis of Dijkstra’s work 

To continue, it is key to briefly clarify the concepts used by Kaja Silverman in The threshold of the visible world (2006).

The screen: In this paper, we will refer to the screen with the definition Silverman provides based fundamentally on Lacan, understanding the screen as a repertoire of representations, a sort of filter, which determines how we see and how others perceive us.

“The screen represents the site at which the gaze is defined for a particular society, and is consequently responsible both for the way in which the inhabitants of that society experience the gaze’s effects, and for much of the seeming particularity of that society’s visual regime.”

The gaze is understood as observing others through this filter, namely through the screen. In this sense, the camera could be a metaphor for the gaze or take its place.

“Not only does the camera work to define the contemporary gaze in certain decisive ways, but the camera derives most of its psychic significance through its alignment with the gaze. When we feel the social gaze focused upon us, we feel photographically “framed.” However, the converse is also true: when a real camera is trained upon us, we feel ourselves subjectively constituted, as if the resulting photograph could somehow determine “who” we are.”

The pose is understood as the act of constituting oneself into an image. “The pose also includes within itself the category of “costume,” since it is “worn” or “assumed” by the body.”

Dijkstra’s Beach Portraits merge around the encounter between the photographer, the picture, and the viewer. Therefore, a particular interplay of observing and being observed is encouraged in this project by the photographer. Furthermore, the concepts of gaze, screen, and pose will be considered as a premise to observe the interaction between the photographer, the portrayed, and the spectator in Dijkstra’s Beach series. As explained by Rineke Dijkstra, when she gazes at her sitters, she finds something from her in them. Thus, she identifies with every model she chooses for her portraits.  However, as Silverman points out, the path between the gaze and the observed subject/object always crosses through the screen. On that account, our apprehension of the world is always mediated by the screen, which is culturally influenced. It is essential to clarify that the gaze is not the unidirectional act of looking, but it instead relates to our apprehension of the world, which is therefore always mediated by representation.  Considering that the gaze pierces through the cultural repertoire of representations (screen), it leads us to contemplate the notion of idealization or, more specifically, the cultural idealization. In The Threshold of the Visible World, Silverman insists that we all are constantly pursuing the notion of ideal, or as she calls it, the “ever-failing identification with ideality.” Thus, it is significant to reiterate that every society has its representation of “the ideal.” According to Silverman, the notion of the idealization and the idealizing self-images necessarily entails a culturally as well as a physically “deidealization” of the group of subjects who not belong to the “idealized one.”

In the mirror stage, the kids conceive and later identify themselves with the reflected image. This is the starting point of the perception of themselves. Something relatively similar happens with the gaze. While observing, we conceive the “otherness” and the “sameness,” so we can identify with both at a time, and this identification is part of the constitution of ourselves. “The gaze is the “unapprehensible” agency through which we are socially ratified or negated as spectacle. It is Lacan’s way of stressing that we depend upon the other not only for our meaning and our desires, but also for our very confirmation of self. To “be” is in effect to “be seen.” Once again, a third term mediates between the two ends of the diagram, indicating that subject is never “photographed” as “himself or “herself?” but always in the shape of what is now designated the “screen”.”

Considering these ideas from the spectator’s standpoint, it is presumed that when the viewer beholds Rineke Dijkstra’s Beach Portraits, the person is in some way assuming the place of the photographer and, in a certain way, the place of the camera. The spectator sees a representation of the model; nevertheless, the viewer can relate and identify him- or herself with the image, namely with the subject. The connection between the spectator and the image is established again through the gaze, and consequently through the screen as well. This means that the moment the spectators observe the Beach Portraits, they relate to the models through their cultural repertoire. We as spectators recognize the awkwardness, the transition process in Dijkstra’s Beach Portraits, and we can mirror ourselves in the images. First, we conceive them through our repertoire of cultural representations. We seek the ideal image like we are used to for example watching advertising portraits. However, observing these pictures, we identify the state of unease of the portrayed; we comprehend they do not represent the idealized image.

Although the models are not entirely representing this idealized image, they are depicted as such; on large formats prints, with harmonious backgrounds, from a lower camera vantage point (like when we see a statue), idealizing them.  But it is by means of the -deidealization- that the interaction between spectator-image-photographer succeeds. The spectators can relate to the state of transition they see in Dijkstra’s subjects through “the attempt to sustain one’s ever-failing identification with ideality” and the never-ending process of the identity’s construction. 

This dynamic depicted by the interaction between the photographer and the sitter, and the spectator and the image/sitter, can be further observed in the interaction between the sitter/image and the camera/gaze, guided by Silverman’s concept of pose

As mentioned previously, Dijkstra’s sitters are confronted directly with the camera; their gaze is directed to the lens, and at this moment, they try to compose their self-image through a pose. As explained by Silverman, “through the pose the subject gives him or herself to be apprehended in a particular way by the real or metaphoric camera.” In all the images of Beach Portraits, the transitional state and the tension are visible in the body postures. Many of the models are standing with contained postures that evoke insecurity and awkwardness. Like their emotions were translated into their bodies. They seem to make an effort to look calm and confident but are given away by their stance. According to Silverman, the pose can be understood as a costume or something that is worn or assumed by the body in order to be seen in a certain way.

“The moment the models pose in front of the camera, they are already composing themselves like an image like a representation to be apprehended by the cultural gaze, therefore to be photographed, to be seen. they assume a pose that displays their desire to be perceived in a particular way and this pose “may testify to a blind aspiration to approximate an image which represents a cultural ideal, without any thought as to what that ideal implies.”

Through these observations, we can conceive the importance of images and photography in the construction of identity. People, like the models in Beach Portraits, seem to feel the urge to compose their ideal self-image for the camera. This could explain the power of images and representations in our society, and how to be photographically captured signifies to be observed, therefore being constituted by this gaze.

“Lacan sharply differentiates the gaze from the subject’s look, conferring visual authority not on the look but on the gaze. He, thereby suggests that what is determinative for each of us is not how we see or would like to see ourselves, but how we are perceived by the cultural gaze.”  

In Beach Portraits, the self-presentation plays a significant role. The awkwardness and the state of transition of the subjects are evident and contrast with the balanced and harmonious composition of the series. 

As discussed in the Beach Portraits, the articulation from the formal and technical characteristics and the interaction between the photographer, the camera, the model, and the spectator are essential features in Dijkstra’s works, through which she composes images that incite a thoughtful observation. It is this ambiguous feature of the portraits that grasps the viewer. There are no answers provided in her portraits, they invite instead to reflect on the interweaving act of seeing and being seen. The spectators interact with the image, assuming the gaze of the artist and the camera, “this explains how, briefly, we can even share the subject’s fate- we can feel looked at by the picture and, in turn, we unequivocally experience what it is like to be looked at by an other.” Rineke Dijkstra composes representations, in which case the mirror image function reveals the encounter between our gaze with the other, therefore the tension of seeing and being seen. In this sense, being constituted by the gaze of others, by the cultural gaze, by the camera/gaze.

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Sources

Adrichem, Jan van: Realism in the smallest details. RIneke Dijkstra interviewed by Jan van Adrichem,  in: Dijkstra, Rineke/ Guggenheim Foundations [a.o]: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012, pp. 45-60.

Blessing, Jennifer: What we still feel. Rineke Dijkstra´s Video, in: Dijkstra, Rineke/ Guggenheim Foundations [a.o]: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012, pp. 29-43. 

Blessing, Jennifer: Emphatic Mirroring. Transition and Transformation in Rineke Dijkstra´s Portraits of Girls and Young Women, in: L. Wolthers/ D. Vujanović Östlind/ J. Blessing: WO MEN, Hasselblad Foundation, Gothenburg 2017, pp. 206-210.

Dean, Alison: Intimacy at Work. Nan Goldin and Rineke Dijkstra, in:  History of Photography, June 1, 2015, pp. 177-193.                                                                                                             URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03087298.2015.1038109 (Accessed: November 13, 2017) 

Dijkstra, Rineke/ Guggenheim Foundations [a.o]: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012.

Dijkstra, Rineke/ Visser, Hripsimé: Rineke Dijkstra. Portraits, Schirmer/Mosel, Munich, 2004.

 Fried, Michael: Why Photography matters as art as never before, Yale University Press, New Haven, London, 2008. 

Gierstberg, Frits (ed.): European portrait photography since 1990 [Ex.Cat.] Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussel, 06.02.2015-17.05.2015/ Netherlands, Fotomuseum Rotterdam, 30.05.2015-30.08.2015/ Museum of Photography, Thessaloniki, 11.09.2015-28.02.2016, Munich [a.o.] 2015.

Guggenheim Museum, Solomon R.: Symposium. Empathy, Affect, and the Photographic Image, in conjunction with exhibition: Rineke Dijkstra: A Retrospective, Guggenheim Museum (Museum June 29-October 8, 2012), New York 27 Feb. 2013.  Available: in Guggenheim Museum Channel https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFeBRCk3xns                   (Accessed:  12.03.2018)

Hartog Jager, Hans den: The Krazy House. A conversation Rineke Dijkstra and Peter Gorschlüter, in: H. d. Hartog Jager [a.o.] Rineke Dijkstra. The Krazy House,  MMK, Museum für Moderne Kunst, Frankfurt M., 2013, pp. 63-72.

Phillips, Sandra. S.:Twenty Years of Looking at People, in:  Dijkstra, Rineke/ Guggenheim Foundations [a.o]: Rineke Dijkstra. A retrospective, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York/ San Francisco 2012, pp. 13-27.

Dijkstra, Rineke / Holm, M.: The Louisiana Book [Ex.Cat] Louisiana Museum of Modern Art,  Louisiana [a.o] 2017.

Silverman, Kaja: The threshold of the visible world , Routledge, New York/ London 1996.

Stallbrass, Julian: What´s in a Face? Blankness and Significance in Contemporary Art Photography, October Vol. 122, 2007, pp.71-91.

Stahel, Urs: Afterwards. After the climax as a focal element in RIneke Dijkstra´s portrait photography, in Dijkstra, Rineke/ Visser, Hripsimé: Rineke Dijkstra. Portraits, Schirmer/Mosel, Munich, 2004, pp. 144-153.

Stamm, Reiner: Rineke DIjkstra, Paula Modersohn. Portraits, Paula Modersohn Becker Museum, Bremen 2003.

Tojner, Poul: Paying attention, In:  Dijkstra, Rineke/ M. J. Holm: The Louisiana Book [Ex.Cat] Louisiana Museum of Modern Art,  Louisiana [a.o] 2017, pp. 9-13.

Visser, Hripsimé: The Soldier, the Disco girl, the mother and the Polish Venus. Regarding the Photographs of Rineke Dijkstra, In: Dijkstra, Rineke/ Visser, Hripsimé: Rineke Dijkstra. Portraits, Schirmer/Mosel, Munich, 2004, pp. 6-15.

Vujanović Östlind, D./ Wolthers, L./ Blessing, J.: WO MEN,  Hasselbad Foundation, Gothenburg, 2017.

Weski, T.: Giving Space, in: Dijkstra, Dijkstra, Rineke/ M. J. Holm: The Louisiana Book [Ex.Cat] Louisiana Museum of Modern Art,  Louisiana [a.o] 2017, pp. 14-20.

Camille Claudel’s Clotho. Between Venus and the Fates

The French artist, Camille Claudel, was born the 8th December 1864 in Fére-en-Tardenois.

At an early age, Camille was interested in sculpture. Before she turned 18 years old, her family moved to Paris, where she visited courses in the Academie Colarossi and established her own atelier together with two other young female sculptors. The sculptor Alfred Boucher (1850-1934) visited their Atelier and provided advice to their works once a week.[1]

Later in 1883, Claudel had the possibility to study with Auguste Rodin, and shortly after, she began working in Rodin’s Atelier. They worked together for several years and kept a romantic relationship.

In Claudel’s works, a special skillfulness and exploration of the material as well as a unique style exploration are visible. There have been lots of discussions about the influence of Rodin in her work and vice versa.  Camille confronted recurrent comparisons with Rodin during her art career.[2]

“During Camille Claudel’s lifetime, she pursued a career that was largely defined in terms of Auguste Rodin. This perspective of her work may be seen most notably in the reactions to her sculpture L’Âge Mûr. This work was interpreted as an allegory of two women’s struggle for one man – the artist Rodin.” [3]

The interpretations of Camille Claudel’s pieces have frequently been biographical. Paul Claudel, a poet, and her diplomat brother established this tradition of understanding Claudel’s art pieces as a visual representation of every stage and event of her life, above all about her romantic relationship with Rodin. Years after Camille’s death, Paul Claudel published an article for an exhibition catalog at the Musée Rodin, describing and interpreting her works merely with a biographical approach.[4]

Intending to find an economical and artistic independence, and most importantly, to distance her work from Rodin’s influence in order to gain her own artistic recognition, Camille aimed to develop her own artistic style totally different from Rodin. In search of an artistic independence, Camille created several pieces where her artistic pursuit began to be visible.

Here it is important to remark as well the artistic environment that surrounded Camille Claudel, namely Paris the international cultural center at that time. The Royal Academies of Art were well established in Europe and represented the most significant professional art societies. The art academies established an important artistic tradition. Besides the artistic instruction, they held the annual or semi-annual exhibitions. The Academies were places to display and show to the critics the artist’s works.[5]

“However, by the mid-nineteenth century, academies across Europe were undercut by what would later be seen as avant-garde movements. Some artists sought change from within, exhibiting their radical works at these official venues.”[6]

Consequently, this means that the artistic environment that surrounded Claudel was rich in variety and, most importantly, inspired by challenging the academic dominance of the art sphere.

Claudel’s art-piece Clotho, a plaster, and later marble female sculpture, which is the main focus of this article, was probably the beginning of Claudel’s own artistic style exploration,[7] doubtlessly influenced as well by the academic and nonacademic artistic environment at the moment.

Camille Claudel’s Clotho

In 1893 an older woman who worked as a model in Rodin’s atelier posed for Claudel for the creation of Clotho.[8]

Camille, Claudel: Clotho, 1893, plaster, 90 x 49.3 x 43 cm, Musée Rodin, Paris.

Camille Claudel named her sculpture after Clotho, one of the three Fates from Greek mythology; the goddesses in charge of threading the destiny, a topic to which I will refer back later.

The drafts of the torso figure are exhibited in Musée d’Orsay. The plaster version of Clotho was exhibited at the Salon of 1893 and is nowadays kept in the Musée Rodin

The final marble piece was completed in 1897; however, its whereabouts are unknown.

“Through Clotho, Claudel is able to show the viewer once again that, though she may be working from similar themes as Rodin and his other assistants, she still has the creativity and skill to create an individual work of art. Not only did she create a sculpture that called upon classic literature, but she also found technical inspiration in Rodin’s studio – and possibly even Art Nouveau – in one work of art.”[9]

Claudel’s sculpture portrays an old naked woman standing over a roughed textured basis. She is thin, almost skeletal, with visible traces of the aging body. Her posture is slightly leaning to a side with her head and neck much more inclined like bearing the weight of her voluminous hair.

Clotho’s posture is evoking a flowing movement. Her arms are positioned in an intent to counterbalance the weight of the head, her separated and slightly bended knees in conjunction with the one arm holding her hair. She looks like she is about to take a step or that she is standing and “captured” in a moment of free and dynamic movement.

Her face with prominent cheekbones is half-covered by the hair. The rendering of the neck, breast, and stomach show baggy flesh by age, which allows the ribs to be visible through the loose skin.

The voluminous top part of the sculpture, the figure’s hair has a strong, heavy rendering. The texture is rough and split into thick parts, like thread or roots. The voluminous and roughed textured hair has different sizes, it is tangled at the level of the back and neck and comes down tangling up on her arms and legs. The sinuous shape of the hair falls down to her ankle, rounding her left leg. All the parts that formed the voluminous hair are eventually divided into just two thick sections, which are rooted in the basis.

Despite the volume and length of the hair, it has no weightless mobility. Instead, it twirls and has a similar structure of wet, thick hair or tree roots. Her right arm is holding her head and hair, and the left one is stretched out with a section of hair over the hand.  Her tilted head reveals a deep look in her eyes and her mouth sketches a grimace.

“Clotho’sspindly hair, for example, speaks to the sinuous lines that were so revered in Art Nouveau.”[10]

It is clearly visible that Claudel’s figure does not follow the classical academic ideal standards closely. Though the old Clotho from Camille Claudel is a full-body standing figure, its posture is not following an academic pose. The sculpture’s posture has seemingly an engaged leg carrying most of the weight and a free leg that enhances the perception of a walking movement, which portrays Clotho as if she is about to step, or walk, like a contrapposto. But Clotho is not portraying the gracefulness and elegance of ancient antique figures. Instead, her posture seems to be purposely unbalanced by the weight of the hair, which forces the figure to break the elegant academic body position.[11]

Claudel didn’t portray the Fate goddess following the ancient Greek tradition with the folding garments, nor is she depicting it as a beautiful woman, which would follow the academic ideals. However, despite all the aforementioned, it seems she is not either desisting entirely of these standards. Claudel is indeed depicting an antique Roman-Greek motif, namely a myth, and here might be highlighted as well that Clothohas a powerful theatrical posture, she seems to be emerging from somewhere, heading forwards.

The Fates myth

The Moirai or Parcae in the Greek Mythology also commonly known as Fates, were three sister deities named: Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. The description of the three goddesses appears first in Hesiod’s epic poem the Theogony (ca. 700 B.C.E.).

Hesiod presents the three fates as the daughters of Zeus and Themis. The goddesses personified the destiny and life: they were in charge of spinning “the thread of a mortal’s life at birth and thus determined his destiny.”[12]

Every goddess had a specific task and a special attribute that distinguish her: Clotho being the youngest, is presented as “the Spinner.” Clotho held the distaff to spin the thread of life and therefore was the one who decided birth; Lachesis “the Apportioner” measured the length of the thread and spun out the course of life; and Atropos the eldest sister, “the inflexible” had the task to cut off the thread which turned her in the Fate of death.[13]

Thomas Blisniewski, explains in his book „Kinder der dunkelen Nacht “(1992), that the Fate sisters determine not only the duration of life but the quality of it as well. Blisniewski describes how in various myths, the thread had a specific color and structure that could bespeak for the quality of life; for example, a strong thread predicted happiness and good luck while a black thread bad luck.[14]

The three Fates represented the supreme arbitresses of humanity’s fate, and they often appear together in many classical traditions. The artistic representations of the three sisters have some variations according to the time as well. Nevertheless, in most of the depictions, they are represented as a group and carry their attributes, which have made them identifiable.

Fig.: Peter Paul Rubens: The destiny from Marie de Medici, 1621-1625, 394 x 155 cm, Oil on canvas, Paris, Musée du Louvre.

Depicting the three sisters together, as aforementioned, completed the allegory of fate portraying the three stages of life and symbolized by the attributes and the task of each one of the goddesses. This means that the three sisters together summarized the human existence.

Claudel’s Clotho

It is undoubtful that the representation of the Fates has not been static over the years but, despite the changes, their attributes (distaff, scissors, and the measure of the thread) were usually the elements that allow the spectator to understand the allegory.[15]

Some artworks depicted the Three Fates as youthful and graceful women, representing the goddesses of fate in the strict sense of the term, reinforcing the idea of the goddesses in charge of the construction of the path of life, from birth to death. In the depictions in which the goddesses appeared like three old and ugly women, Goya’s painting Atropos or the Fates (1820-1823)serves here as an example, the motif of the Fates is directly related to death. They represent an allegory of the duration of life, threading the path of life to an end.

Francisco, de Goya: Las parcas, 1820-23, oil on canvas, Museo del Prado, Madrid.

There are interesting comparisons to be analyzed between the tradition of the Fate Clotho and the depiction of Camille Claudel’s figure. Clotho is normally the fate in charge of the beginning of life. Camille Claudel’s Clotho however is depicted as an old, nearly skeletal woman, with all the traces of an aged body. She doesn’t carry the distaff, nor is she depicted doing her task as the “Spinner.”

The connection of Camille’s Clotho with the myth, besides the name of the art piece, might be the rendering of the hair. In Claudel’s figure, the strands of hair are thick with a rough texture, which could evoke to the texture of a thread.[16]

Determined by her biography and her own artistic development, it is known that Camille Claudel had knowledge of classic mythology not only because of her earlier works and studies but thanks to her father´s book collection, too[17].

Nevertheless, Claudel’s Clotho is represented separated from her sisters Atropos and Lachesis and depicted without the traditional attributes. Claudel’s aged figure with her impressive heavy thread-like hair portrays a woman whose hair/thread has grown rampantly and begins to entangle itself. In this figure, Claudel seems to have depicted the goddess like a Clotho who is tied in her own hair, in her own life thread.[18]

Despite this and the fragile thinness of the sculpture, it does not show a dying or shamed woman, she looks strangely empowered by her hair and standing pose.[19] 

This feature can be described in connection to the depiction of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau.

Venus description in relation to Clotho

Bouguereau’s oil academic painting The Birth of Venus (1879) was exhibited in the Paris Salon from 1879. It won the Prix de Rome as well and was bought by the Musée du Luxembourg in Paris where it was exhibited until 1920. Nowadays, The Birth of Venus is exhibited in Musée d´Orsay in Paris. The art-piece represents an exemplification of the academic art of that time[20], the rendering of Venus follows the example set by the classic tradition and Bouguereau portrays Venus with a dynamic elegant contrapposto, which enhances movement and displays an idealized Venus.

Adolphe William, Bouguereau: The Birth of Venus, 1879, 300x 215 cm, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris.

Venus (or her Greek counterpart Aphrodite) is associated with love and feminine beauty and has been a popular subject in art since ancient times[21].

On the one hand, Hesiod describes that Aphrodite/Venus was born out of sea foam after Crono emasculated Uranos and his blood dropped into the sea. Venus stepped on a scallop shell ashore. On the other hand, according to Homer, Venus was the daughter of Dione and Zeus.

“The Greeks explained her name as deriving from aphros, or “foam,” seemingly concurring with Hesiod in respect of her origin, though this is not a “traditional” Olympian origin, as it would make her more ancient and therefore more essential than Zeus.” [22]

The myth presents Venus as a docile female principle related to water and in charge of providing balance to life. Venus balances the opposite tempers, connecting the male and female.[23]

Venus was usually depicted naked or partially naked. The goddess’ attributes are among others: the swan, the pomegranate, the dove, Myrtle, and sparrows were sacred to her. It is believed that the goddess of love renews her virginity periodically in the sea at Paphos[24].

She is usually depicted as a beautiful, docile, but simultaneously extremely powerful woman. All this, considering what Hesiod mentions in Theogony that her very birth resulted from the castration of Uranos,

“Venus, goddess of love, has provided the perfect subject through which twentieth-century artists have expressed their association of humanistic and aesthetic ideals with a woman. Because she has represented the standard of beauty through the centuries, Venus has lent herself to historicizing more than any other mythical figure, and artists wanting to comment on earlier art are likely to turn to her.”[25]  

In association with the tradition of the depiction of Venus, the mythological scene from Bouguereau shows the naked Venus standing in the center of the image, she has just been born and stands on her sea-shell. Various other characters are gathered around her with admiration in their gaze. The brushstrokes are so soft, they are not visible, and the rendering of the characters has a porcelain-alike finish. The application of light helps to increase the importance of the goddess, and soft highlights are visible all over the right side of her body and hair. Though the treatment of the flesh colors is relatively similar in all the female characters of the painting, Venus stands out with her warm-pink undertone.

Venus is elegantly standing while she raises her arms, and both of her hands are holding several hair strands, it seems like she is arranging her hair. Venus’s head is tilted to a side. Her face is slightly covered by her left arm, and she seems to be looking downwards. The expression in her face bespeaks serenity and a solemn look. The goddess’ hair is striking and captures special attention, her hair is long and reaches her thighs. The depiction of her locks is carefully rendered; they look thick and voluminous. At the tips of the hair, we find it divided into several wavy hair strands.

Though she is accompanied by several creatures, her position is not only highlighted by the composition of the image, which places her in the middle occupying more than half of the space, but also, most importantly for this paper, her relevance is portrayed through her elegant, sensual posture, which presents a soft contrapposto. 

Comparison Venus with Clotho

Interestingly, there are some formal similarities between the Venus by Bouguereau and Clotho by Camille Claudel as well as extreme differences that could help us better understand Claudel’s Clotho.

Observing the figure of Venus in Bouguereau’s painting in relation to Claudel’s Clotho, we find the depiction of two naked women, who are standing on a base. Both, Venus and Clotho have long, voluminous and heavy hair and a comparable rendering of it, being in both sculptures the most remarkable element. Clotho’s hair presents a thick texture. Claudel’s Clotho could represent an aged version of Venus. The posture of both images is similar as well, and above all, the placing of their arms holding the hair.

The standing pose of the women is similar. Both are depicted leaning slightly to one side. On the one hand Venus shows an elegant contrapposto, and on the other hand Clotho has a naturalistic standing pose; she seems to be in motion. On both figures, the weight of the body is placed on the left leg, though Clotho seems to be losing her balance because of the fragility and the weight of her thick, heavy entangled hair.

Clotho is standing over a rough-textured base. The base is essentially shapeless and has a non-finito rendering. As such, much like the shapeless depiction of Clotho, the shapeless representation of the base can be seen as the sea-shell that transports Venus to shore.

Clotho is portrayed presenting a dichotomy of a fragile, withered woman while simultaneously looking sort of empowered by her hair. Her body looks fragile, but she looks undoubtedly powerful.

Finally, it is clear that Claudel’s Clotho representation is not portraying or following in a precise manner the tradition of the voluminous, young beautiful female nude we find in Bouguereau’s Venus. Nonetheless, as mentioned before, along with this comparison, we’ve observed that Camille Claudel might have depicted her Clotho as a Venus. In the formal language, we’ve already found some similarities. Now it is important to try to understand the reason of why Claudel might have used both traditions for her sculpture, to portray a Clotho that resembles an aged, withered Venus and a Venus that is lacking beauty, youthfulness and being alone.

 What does it mean that Claudel presents Clotho like Venus?

Up to this point I’ve analyzed that Camille Claudel’s figure oscillates between the Venus and the Fates tradition. Despite them being considered as opposite, it is exactly this dichotomy that enriches the figure’s discourse. Considering this interpretation, it is proper to wonder: why would Camille present Clotho as Venus and Venus as Clotho? Why did she borrow features of both traditions for her figure? It is also important to consider that despite this oscillation in-between traditions, Camille guides the interpretation, providing the figure a specific name, which leads to a certain lecture of the sculpture.

Claudel created a figure, that implies the conjunction of opposites. In other words, Clotho seems to sway between the personification of an academic Venus (Like Bouguereous) and an anti-academic Clotho. Maybe, the representation of an aged, ugly Venus or an empowered portrayal of destiny, birth and death.

Apparently, Clotho is portraying a visual representation of an agreement/relationship/conjunction between opposites “or the simultaneous unity of past, present, and future”. [26]Here, it could also be mentioned that certainly the birth and death are interpretations closely linked to Venus and Clotho, and of course, despite being totally opposite, both are featured in Claudel’s sculpture

This concern about destiny and life was a recurrent theme in Camille’s oeuvre, for instance, the figure of The wave, where three naked women are portrayed awaiting with impatience the arrival of a big violent wave.

These pieces reflect Claudel’s own style and her seek for her own representation and “understanding of life, love, destiny, death, and God.” [27]

We might understand the presentation of Clotho as an old Venus and the involvement of the traditions as a deeper reflection of life, which Claudel was perhaps interested in showing.[28]

Taking into account that Claudel’s Clotho involves a reflection of life, like mentioned by Angelo Caranfa “a sculpture that contains the simultaneous unity of signs or gestures and silence, time and eternity, a sculpture that articulates the human condition in its transit between birth and death,”[29] all previously mentioned artistic motifs make sense, and show how destiny, the transition of life, the deep and even silent observation of all of this[30], appears not only in Clotho but in many of Claudel’s sculptures. Clotho’s connection to Venus finally has to lead us to understand this duality presented in just one sculpture better and guided us to inquire deeper in Claudel’s art process.


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[1] Cf.(Rivière, 1986, p. 11).

[2] Cf.(Rivière, 1986, pp. 9-14).

[3] (Stengle, 2014).

[4] Cf. (Paris, 1984, p. 299).

[5] Cf.(Rosenfeld, 2004).

[6] (Rosenfeld, 2004).

[7] Cf. (Rivière, 1986)., (Paris, 1984).

[8] Cf. (Callahan, 2015, pp. 19-20).

[9] (Callahan, 2015, pp. 20-21).

[10] (Callahan, 2015, p. 20).

[11] (Summers, 1977).

[12] (Reid & Rohman, 1993, p. 430).

[13] Cf. (Reid & Rohman, 1993, p. 430)., (Blisniewski, 1992, p. 5).

[14] Cf. (Blisniewski, 1992, p. 6)

[15] (Pfisterer, 2011, p. 16).

[16] (Silke, 2017).

[17] Cf. (Berger, 1990, p. 26).

[18] Cf. (Berger, 1990, pp. 26-27).

[19]Cf. (Callahan, 2015, p. 20). (Berger, 1990, pp. 26-27).

[20]Cf. (Hooper, 1879).

[21] Cf. (Aghion, Barbillon, & Francois, 2000, pp. 49-55).

[22] (Kennedy, 1998, p. 37).

[23] Cf.(Aghion, Barbillon, & Francois, 2000, pp. 49-55).

[24] Cf. (Kennedy, 1998).

[25] (Bernstock, 1993).      

[26] (Caranfa, 1999, p. 107).

[27] (Caranfa, 1999, p. 41).

[28] (Flagmeier, 1989, p. 307).

[29] (Caranfa, 1999, p. 109).

[30] Cf. (Caranfa, 1999, p. 109).